A system (from Latin ''systēma'', in turn from Greek '''' systēma, "whole compounded of several parts or members, system", literary "composition") is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole.

A system is a set of elements (often called'' 'components' ''instead) and relationships which are different from relationships of the set or its elements to other elements or sets.

Fields that study the general properties of systems include systems theory, cybernetics, dynamical systems, thermodynamics and complex systems. They investigate the abstract properties of systems' matter and organization, looking for concepts and principles that are independent of domain, substance, type, or temporal scale.

Most systems share common characteristics, including:

Systems have structure, defined by components/elements and their composition;

Systems have behavior, which involves inputs, processing and outputs of material, energy, information, or data;

Systems have interconnectivity: the various parts of a system have functional as well as structural relationships to each other.

Systems may have some functions or groups of functions

The term ''system'' may also refer to a set of rules that governs structure and/or behavior.

History

The word ''system'' in its meaning here, has a long history which can be traced back to Plato (''Philebus''), Aristotle (''Politics'') and Euclid (''Elements''). It had meant "total", "crowd" or "union" in even more ancient times, as it derives from the verb ''sunìstemi'', uniting, putting together.

"System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system". (Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Cool. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Book published by The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288).

In the 19th century the first to develop the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences was the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot who studied thermodynamics. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the ''working substance'', i.e. typically a body of water vapor, in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (to which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.

One of the pioneers of the general systems theory was the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy. In 1945 he introduced ''models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.''

Significant development to the concept of a ''system'' was done by Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems.

In the 1980s the term complex adaptive system was coined at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute by John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others.

System concepts

;Environment and boundaries :Systems theory views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. We scope a system by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside - part of the environment. We then make simplified representations (models) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and/or the behavior of the system.

;Natural and human-made systems :There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their outputs can be interpreted as purposes. Human-made systems are made with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of outputs. Their parts must be related; they must be “designed to work as a coherent entity” - else they would be two or more distinct systems.

;Theoretical Framework :An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems; like a car, coffeemaker, or computer. A closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such system is the Universe.

;Process and transformation process :A system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. E.g., an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.

;Subsystem :A ''subsystem'' is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system.

;System Model :A system comprises multiple views. For the man-made systems it may be such views as planning, requirement (analysis), design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these multiple views.

;System Architecture :A system architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views such as planning, requirement (analysis), design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views, is a kind of system model.

Elements of System

Following are considered as the elements of a system in terms of Information systems: -

# Inputs and Outputs # Processor # Control # Environment # Feedback # Boundaries and Interface

Types of systems

Systems are classified in different ways: # Physical or Abstract systems # Open or Closed systems # 'Man-made' Information systems # Formal Information systems # Informal Information systems # Computer Based Information systems # Real Time System

Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation.

An open system has many interfaces with its environment. i.e. system that interacts freely with its environment, taking input and returning output. It permits interaction across its boundary; it receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside. A closed system does not interact with the environment; changes in the environment and adaptability are not issues for closed system.

Analysis of systems

Evidently, there are many types of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, with an analysis of urban systems dynamics, [A.W. Steiss] defines five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, where Kenneth D. Bailey defines systems in terms of conceptual, concrete and abstract systems; either isolated, closed, or open, Walter F. Buckley defines social systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy cautions that with any inquiry into a system that understanding the type of system is crucial and defines Natural and Designed systems.

In offering these more global definitions, the author maintains that it is important not to confuse one for the other. The theorist explains that natural systems include sub-atomic systems, living systems, the solar system, the galactic system and the Universe. Designed systems are our creations, our physical structures, hybrid systems which include natural and designed systems, and our conceptual knowledge. The human element of organization and activities are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A key consideration in making distinctions among various types of systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how widely is the freedom to select itself distributed (or concentrated) in the system.

George J. Klir maintains that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes," and defines systems in terms of abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, et cetera. The interaction between systems and their environments are categorized in terms of relatively closed, and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by us. Important distinctions have also been made between hard and soft systems. Hard systems are associated with areas such as systems engineering, operations research and quantitative systems analysis. Soft systems are commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasizing participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific," the distinction between them is actually often hard to define.

Cultural system

A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both systems together are referred to as the sociocultural system. A major concern in the social sciences is the problem of order. One way that social order has been theorized is according to the degree of integration of cultural and social factors.

Economic system

An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.

Application of the system concept

Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent of the intention of the modeler.

No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.

Systems in information and computer science

In computer science and information science, system is a software system which has components as its structure and observable Inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal System is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case in order to facilitate the flow of information).

System can also be used referring to a framework, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run, see platform.

Systems in engineering and physics

In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system that refers to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering refers to the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained.

Systems in social and cognitive sciences and management research

Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and human mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.

In management science, operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book ''The Fifth Discipline''.

Systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can ''think globally while acting locally''. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.

Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.

Systems applied to strategic thinking

In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced his Five Ring System model in his book, ''The Air Campaign'' contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the First Gulf War. In the late 1990s, Warden applied this five ring model to business strategy.

See also

;Examples of systems

List of systems (WikiProject)

physical system

conceptual system

Complex system

Formal system

Information system

Meta-system

Solar System

Systems in human anatomy

Market

;Theories about systems

Chaos theory

Cybernetics

Systems ecology

Systems engineering

Systems psychology

Systems theory

Thermodynamic systems

Control theory

;Related topics

Glossary of systems theory

Complexity theory and organizations

Black box

System of systems (engineering)

Systems art

References

Further reading

Alexander Backlund (2000). "The definition of system". In: ''Kybernetes'' Vol. 29 nr. 4, pp. 444–451.

Kenneth D. Bailey (1994). ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis''. New York: State of New York Press.

Bela H. Banathy (1997). "A Taste of Systemics", ISSS The Primer Project.

Walter F. Buckley (1967). '' Sociology and Modern Systems Theory'', New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.

Peter Checkland (1997). ''Systems Thinking, Systems Practice''. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Robert L. Flood (1999). ''Rethinking the Fifth Discipline: Learning within the unknowable''. London: Routledge.

George J. Klir (1969). Approach to General Systems Theory, 1969.

Brian Wilson (1980). ''Systems: Concepts, methodologies and Applications'', John Wiley

Brian Wilson (2001). ''Soft Systems Methodology—Conceptual model building and its contribution'', J.H.Wiley.

Beynon-Davies P. (2009). ''Business Information + Systems''. Palgrave, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-0-230-20368-6

External links

''Definitions of Systems and Models'' by Michael Pidwirny, 1999-2007.

''Definitionen von "System" (1572-2002)'' by Roland Müller, 2001-2007 (most in German).

Theory and Practical Exercises of System Dynamics by Juan Martin (also in Spanish)

Category:Cybernetics Category:Systems theory Category:Systems science Category:Greek loanwords

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David's Mighty Warriors (also known as David's Mighty Men or the Gibborim) are a group of biblical characters explicitly singled out by an ''appendix'' of the Books of Samuel. The text (2 Samuel 23:8-39) divides them into the "Three", of which there are three, and "Thirty", of which there are more than thirty. The text explicitly states that there are 37 individuals in all, but it is unclear whether this refers to The Thirty, which may or may not contain The Three, or the combined total of both groups. The text cryptically refers to The Three and The Thirty as if they were both important entities, rather than just an arbitrary list of three or 30-plus significant men (respectively).

Some Textual scholars regard the passages referring to The Three and The Thirty as having come from either a source distinct to the main sources in the Books of Samuel, or being otherwise out of place. Since parts of the text have distinct stylistic differences from other portions—appearing as a list, as a series of character introductions, or as a flowing narrative—Some suspect that the passages may themselves be compiled from multiple source documents. Further, as 2 Samuel 23:23-24 reads "...David put him in command of his bodyguard. Ashahel, brother of Joab. Among the thirty were...", the text is regarded as corrupted, and the middle of verse 23:24 (between the words ''Joab'' and ''Among'') is generally presumed to have been lost (some translations move ''Among the thirty were'' to be before ''Ashahel'', which smooths over the issue).

Complete list

Books of Samuel	2 Samuel 23:8–39 !! 1 Chronicles 11:10–47
Jashobeam	Josheb-Basshebeth the Tahkemonite	Jashobeam the Hakmonite
Eleazar (son of Dodai)	Eleazar ben Dodo the Ahohite
[[Shammah ben Agee the Hararite	(unnamed)
Abishai (biblical figure)	Abishai ahi Joab ben Zeruiah	Abishai ahi Joab
Benaiah ben Jehoiada	Benaiah ben Jehoiada
Asahel ahi Joab	Asahel ahi Joab
Elhanan son of Dodo	Elhanan ben Dodo of Bethlehem	Elhanan ben Dodo of Bethlehem
Shammah the Ein Harod	Harodite	Ein Harod>Harorite
Elika the Harodite	—
Helez the Paltite	Helez the Pelonite
Ira ben Ikkesh of Tekoa (ancient town)	Tekoa	Ira ben Ikkesh of Tekoa
Abiezer of Anathoth	Abiezer of Anathoth
Mebunnai the Hushathite	Sibbekai the Hushathite
Zalmon the Ahoah	Ahohite	Ilai the Ahohite
Mahari the Umm Tuba	Netophathite	Mahari the Netophathite
Heleb ben Baanah the Umm Tuba	Netophathite	Heled ben Baana the Netophathite
Ithai ben Ribai of Gibeah	Gibeah of Benjamin	Ithai ben Ribai of Gibeah of Benjamin
Benaiah the Pirathonite	Benaiah the Pirathonite
Hiddai of the Mount Gaash	Ravines of Gaash	Hurai of the Ravines of Gaash
Abi-Albon the Arabah	Arbathite	Abiel the Arbathite
Azmaveth the Bahurim	Barhumite	Bahurim>Baharumite
Eliahba the Salbit	Shaalbonite	Eliahba the Shaalbonite
the sons of Jashen	Gizo, Israel>Gizonite
Jonathan ben Shammah the Hararite	Jonathan ben Shagee the Hararite
Ahiam ben Sharar the Hararite	Ahiam ben Sakar the Hararite
Eliphelet ben Ahasbai the Maacah	Maakathite	Eliphal ben Ur
Eliam ben Ahithophel the Gilonite	—
—	Hepher the Mekerathite
—	Ahijah the Pelonite
Hezro the Carmel (biblical settlement)	Carmelite	Hezro the Carmelite
Paarai the Arbite	Naarai ben Ezbai
Igal ben Nathan of Zobah	Joel ahi Nathan
the son of Haggadi	Mibhar ben Hagri
Zelek the Ammonite	Zelek the Ammonite
Naharai the Beeroth (biblical city)	Beerothite	Beeroth (biblical city)>Berothite
Ira the Kiriath-Jearim	Ithrite	Ira the Ithrite
Gareb the Kiriath-Jearim	Ithrite	Gareb the Ithrite
Uriah the Hittite	Uriah the Hittite	Uriah the Hittite
—	Zabad ben Ahlai
—	Tribe of Reuben>Reubenite
—	Hanan ben Maakah
—	Joshaphat the Mithnite
—	Uzzia the Ashterathite
—	Shama ben Hotham the Aroerite
—	Jeiel ben Hotham the Aroerite
—	Jedieael ben Shimri
—	Joha the Tizite
—	Eliel the Mahavite
—	Jeribai ben Elnaam
—	Joshaviah ben Elnaam
—	Ithma the Moabite
—	Eliel
—	Obed
—	Jaasiel the Mezobaite

The Three

The Three are named Josheb Basshebeth (meaning "dwelling in rest") the Tachmonite ("thou will make me wise"), Eleazar ("God has helped") son of Dodo ("his beloved") the Ahohite ("brother of rest"), and Shammah son of Agee the Hararite.

The Three are also mentioned in the Book of Chronicles, where, in the Masoretic Text, the first of these three is named as ''Jashobeam'' instead. However, the Septuagint version of the same passage presents a name that scholars regard as clearly being a transliteration from ''Isbosheth''—the euphemism employed in some parts of the Bible for the name ''Ishbaal''. Hence the first member of The Three was probably Ishbaal, Saul's son and heir; the text having become corrupted either deliberately (eg. due to an editor that sought to downplay Ishbaal's heroism) or accidentally.

In the narrative, Josheb Bashebeth (who is probably Ishbaal) is described as being the leader, and is said to have killed 800 men in a single encounter. Some Septuagint manuscripts, however, attribute the deaths of these 800 men to ''Adino the Eznite'' instead, though it is unclear why Adino, who is not one of The Three, would be introduced into the narrative in this way. Josheb Bashebeth is also described as a Tahkemonite, which is probably a corruption of ''Hacmonite'', the latter being how he is described by the Book of Chronicles. Though many translations state that the 800 men were killed by a spear, the Hebrew text is somewhat obscure, and alternative translations are plausible.

Eleazar is described as standing his ground against the Philistines at Pas Dammim when the rest of the Hebrews ran away, and as successfully defeating them. Similarly Shammah is described as having stood his ground when the Philistines attacked a "field of ripe lentils" despite the rest of his associates dispersing, and as having defeated the attackers.

The Thirty

The Thirty are not heavily described by the text, merely listed. The list is somewhat corrupt, and there are several differences between the ancient manuscripts of the list, whether they are of the masoretic text or of the Septuagint. Textual scholars generally consider the Septuagint to be more reliable than the masoretic text in regard to this list, particularly since the masoretic text of Chronicles matches the Septuagint version of the Books of Samuel more closely than the masoretic version. In addition there are a few places where it is uncertain whether one person is referred to or if it is two people. The individuals that are clearly identified are:

Elhanan son of Dodo from Bethlehem

Shammah from Arad

Helez from Beth-Palet

Ira son of Ikkesh from Tekoa

Abiezer from Anathoth

a man from Hushah that was named either ''Mebunnai'' (according to the masoretic text) or was named ''Sibbecai'' (according to the Septuagint and Chronicles)

Zalmon, descended from Ahoah

Maharai from Netophah

Heleb son of Baanah from Netophah

Ithai son of Ribai from Gibeah

Benaiah from Pirathon

a man from the ravines of Gaash that was named ''Hiddai'' (according to the masoretic text) or was named ''Hurai'' (according to the Septuagint and Chronicles)

Abi-Albon from Beth-Arabah

Azmaveth from Bahurim

Eliahba from Shaalbim

the (unnamed) sons of a man that was either named ''Hashem'' and was from Gizon (according to the Septuagint and Chronicles) or was named ''Jashen'' (according to the masoretic text)

Ahiam from Arad, whose father was either named ''Sharar'' (according to the masoretic text) or was named ''Sacar'' (according to the Septuagint and Chronicles)

Eliphelet from Maacah, whose father was either named ''Ahasbai'' (according to the Books of Samuel) or ''Ur'' (according to Chronicles)

Eliam son of Ahithophel from Giloh

Hezro from Carmel

Zelek from Ammon

Ira from Jattir

Gareb from Jattir

Uriah the Hittite.

In addition to these, there are a few cases where an individual is named, and is then followed by a description that is unclear as to whether it refers to them, or whether it refers to an additional unnamed person:

Naharai from Beeroth, (and/who is) the armour-bearer of Joab

Igal son of Nathan from Zobah, (and/who is) the son of a man named ''Hagri'' (according to the masoretic text and Chronicles) or ''Haggadi'' (according to the Septuagint).

For the remaining names of the list, there are some significant textual issues, the most minor of which being that the Books of Samuel lists ''Paarai the Arbite'' but the Book of Chronicles lists ''Naarai son of Exbai'' instead. The list in Samuel is generally presented in pairs, where each member of a pair comes from a similar location to the other member, but this pattern is broken by Shammah (from Arad), Elika (from Arad), and Helez (from Beth-Palet), who make a trio; in Chronicles, however, Elika isn't even listed.

The final name(s) on the list itself is/are given by the masoretic text as ''Jonathan son of Shammah from Arad'', but the septuagint has ''Jonathan, [and] Shammah from Arad''; the septuagint implies that the passage was understood to refer to a Jonathan significant enough to need no further qualification, thus probably referring to the Jonathan that elsewhere is described as a son of Saul—which Jonathan being a son of Shammah would contradict. According to textual scholars Jonathan is distinctly associated by other parts of the Books of Samuel with the Hebrews, while Saul is distinctly associated with the Israelites (who the text consistently treats as a distinct group from the Hebrews), and his being Saul's son is considered by some textual scholars as more ethnological than necessarily literal.

As the list is proceeded with ''...David put him in command of his bodyguard. Ashahel, brother of Joab. Among the thirty were..... '', an Asahel the brother of Joab is sometimes considered to be part of the list, having become misplaced rather than the start of a lost passage.

Three of The Thirty

The text also contains a narrative passage about "three of The Thirty". It is unclear from the text whether this refers to The Three, hence implying that The Three were a special group within The Thirty, or whether it refers to another group of three individuals. The narrative, which recounts a single exploit, ends with "such were the exploits of the three mighty men", and textual scholars believe that the narrative may be an extract from a larger group of tales concerning these three. The flowing narrative differs in style from the more abrupt introductions to individual members of The Three and The Thirty that surround it, and textual scholars believe that it may originally have been from a different document. In the narrative, three of the thirty visit David when he is located at the cave of Adullam. While there, David expresses a heartfelt desire for water from a well near Bethlehem, which the narrative states was occupied by Philistines. The three of the thirty therefore forcefully break past the Philistines, and draw water from the well, which they take back to David. David refuses to drink the water, instead pouring it out "before Yahweh", arguing that it was the ''blood'' of the men who had risked their lives. Biblical scholars argue that the description of David pouring out the water is a reference to David offering the water to Yahweh as a libation.

Abishai

An additional account, continuing on from the description of The Three, which was interrupted by the narrative concerning David's thirst, describes Abishai, the brother of Joab. According to the text, he killed 300 men with a spear, and so became as famous as, and more respected than, The Three. The text states that despite the fame and respect he was not included among The Three, suggesting that being a part of The Three is not just a group of famous people, but something which an individual could in some way gain membership, with criteria that involved more than fame and honour.

According to most manuscripts of the masoretic text, Abishai became the commander of The Three, but according to the Syriac Peshitta, and a few masoretic text manuscripts, Abishai instead became the commander of The Thirty. The text explicitely states that Abishai became the commander of The Three despite not being among them, but it is unclear whether this is directly because he was their commander (as with the masoretic text), or whether he was commander of The Thirty (as with the Septuagint) and The Three were a subgroup of The Thirty (as possibly implied by the narrative about "three of The Thirty").

Benaiah

Benaiah is singled out by the text for being a particularly great warrior, as famous as The Three, and significantly more respected than any of The Thirty, for which reason he was put in charge of the royal bodyguard. As with Abishai, the text emphasises that despite these qualities, Benaiah was not a member of The Three. The text gives a list of Benaiah's "great exploits", suggesting that these are what brought him fame and honour; compared with the feats ascribed by the text to Abishai, and to the members of The Three, Benaiah's feats are somewhat minor (though regarded by scholars as more realistic):

Killing two of Moab's best warriors

Killing a lion in a pit on a snowy day

Attacking a 7-and-a-half foot tall Egyptian with a club, stealing the spear that the Egyptian was using, and killing the Egyptian with it.

See also

English translations of the Bible

Septuagint

Masoretic text

Syriac Peshitta

Textual criticism

References

Category:Hebrew Bible people Category:David Category:Books of Samuel

ca:Herois de David es:Valientes de David no:Kong Davids krigere pt:Poderosos guerreiros de Davi uk:Аві-Алвон